Define the following terms and give one example for each:

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(a) Commensalism : (a) Difference between Parasitism and Symbiosis: (b) Differences between Mutualism and Commensalism: (c) Differences between Hydrosere and Xerosere: Odum (1971) distinguished interactions into two broad categories: (A) Positive interactions and (B) Negative interactions. (A) Positive Interactions : In this type, those type of interactions are considered in which both interacting species are mutually involved to help each other. Here, one interacting species helps the other either one way or on reciprocal terms and may be in the form of nutrition or shelter or substratum or transport. Here interaction may be obligatory or facultative. The positive interactions include three types of interactions. They are : 1. Commensalism: This type of interaction occurs in between two organisms of two different species in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed. e.g., Lichens. 2. Protocooperation: The type of interaction where both population are benefited but not obligatory i.e., not essential for the survival of either population is called protocooperation. This is also known as non-obligatory mutualism. The relationship between hermit crab and sea anemone is an example of proto-cooperation. The crab pses the gastropod (mollusc) shell as a portable shield and the sea anemone eats the leftover food of the crab, which is protected from its predators by the stinging cells of the sea anemone. 3. Mutualism or Symbiosis: When two different species grow together and are mutually benefited, the plants are known as symbiotic plants and the phenomenon is called symbiosis or mutualism. It is a sort of obligatory association. This type the organisms are dependent upon each other for survival. In this type of association, two types of species are physiologically related. This type of relationship may exist in between two plants or in between one plant and one animal or in between two animals. (B) Negative Interactions : Those interactions of two different species in which both are harmed or one organism is benefited while other is more or less harmed is referred to as negative interaction. In this type of interaction one population eats the other type of population or one organism does not allow other organisms to grow near it by using the food supply of the other or producing toxic substances. The negative interactions be categorised into following types : Competition, Parasitism, Predation and Antibiosis. 1. Competition : When interaction occurs between two species for the use of same resources and when resources are in short supply is referred to as competition. It is a relationship which involves struggle amongst the organisms for food, shelter, water, sunlight and climate. 2. Parasitism : Parasite is an organism which is dependent upon other living organism for their food and other requirements. Parasitism is an interspecific interrelation in which the individual of one species lives at the cost of the individual of another species, its host which it harms and eventually kills. In this case host is always larger than the parasite. The parasite that is seen on the surface of host plant is called ectoparasite or external parasite and if a parasite is found inside the plant body is said to be an endoparasite or internal parasite. Examples: (i) Parasitic bacteria : Parasitic bacteria cause several diseases in plants and animals. For example, the citrus canker disease of lemon is caused by Xanthomonas citri, black rots of vegetables of Cruciferae group is caused by Xanthomonas campestris. The common diseases caused by bacteria in human beings are diarrhoea, pneumonia, tetanus, leprosy, plague etc. (ii) Predation : To obtain food by hunting is predation. A predator is an animal or plant that kills and feeds on another organism, its prey. It represents a generalised carnivorous habit. Commonly predators are larger than their prey but this is not always true but predator is in any case always occur as a naturally better equipped hunter than its prey. Most of the predatory organisms are animals but there are some plants (carnivores) also especially fungi which feed upon other animals. (b) Parasitism : (a) Difference between Parasitism and Symbiosis: (b) Differences between Mutualism and Commensalism: (c) Differences between Hydrosere and Xerosere: (a) Parasitism: Parasite is an organism which is dependent upon other living organisms for their food and other requirements. Parasitism is an interspecific interrelation in which the individual of one species lives at the cost of the individual of another species, its host which it harms and eventually kills. In this case host is always larger than the parasite. The parasite that is seen on the surface of host plant is called ectoparasite or external parasite and if a parasite is found inside the plant body is said to be an endoparasite or internal parasite. Examples: (i) Parasitic bacteria: Parasitic bacteria cause several diseases in plants and animals. For example, the citrus canker disease of lemon is caused by Xanthomonas citri, black rots of vegetables of Crticiferae group is caused by Xanthomonas campestris. The common diseases caused by bacteria in human beings are diarrhoea, pneumonia, tetanus, leprosy, plague etc. (b) Species dominance: Presence of any biotic community or presence of more population of any species biosphere shown its dominance and it is called species dominance which has capacity to reduce other species in population. The effect of dominant speeds is more upon environment or other species. (c) Biotic potential: Biotic potential is the ability of a population of living species to increase under ideal environmental conditions sufficient food supply, no predators and a lack of disease. An organisms rate of reproduction and the size of each litter are the primary determining factors for biotic potential. Odum (1971) distinguished interactions into two broad categories: (A) Positive interactions and (B) Negative interactions. (A) Positive Interactions: In this type, those type of interactions are considered in which both interacting species are mutually involved to help each other. Here, one interacting species helps the other either one way or on reciprocal terms and may be in the form of nutrition or shelter or substratum or transport. Here interaction may be obligatory or facultative. The positive interactions include three types of interactions. They are : 1. Commensalism : This type of interaction occurs in between two organisms of two different species in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed. e.g., Lichens. 2. Protocooperation : The type of interaction where both population are benefited but not obligatory i.e., not essential for the survival of either population is called protocooperation. This is also known as non-obligatory mutualism. The relationship between hermit crab and sea anemone is an example of proto-cooperation. The crab pses the gastropod (mollusc) shell as a portable shield and the sea anemone eats the leftover food of the crab, which is protected from its predators by the stinging cells of the sea anemone. 3. Mutualism or Symbiosis : When two different species grow together and are mutually benefited, the plants are known as symbiotic plants and the phenomenon is called symbiosis or mutualism. It is a sort of obligatory association. This type the organisms are dependent upon each other for survival. In this type of association, two types of species are physiologically related. This type of relationship may exist in between two plants or in between one plant and one animal or in between two animals. (B) Negative Interactions : Those interaction of two different species in which both are harmed or one organism is benefited while other is more or less harmed is referred to as negative interaction. In this type of interaction one population eats the other type of population or one organism does not allow other organisms to grow near it by using the food supply of the other or producing toxic substances. The negative interactions be categorised into following types : Competition, Parasitism, Predation and Antibiosis. 1. Competition : When interaction occurs between two species for the use of same resources and when resources are in short supply is referred to as competition. It is a relationship which involves struggle amongst the organisms for food, shelter, water, sunlight and climate. 2. Parasitism : Parasite is an organism which is dependent upon other living organism for their food and other requirements. Parasitism is an interspecific interrelation in which the individual of one species lives at the cost of the individual of another species, its host which it harms and eventually kills. In this case host is always larger than the parasite. The parasite that is seen on the surface of host plant is called ectoparasite or external parasite and if a parasite is found inside the plant body is said to be an endoparasite or internal parasite. Examples: (i) Parasitic bacteria : Parasitic bacteria cause several diseases in plants and animals. For example, the citrus canker disease of lemon is caused by Xanthomonas citri, black rots of vegetables of Cruciferae group is caused by Xanthomonas campestris. The common diseases caused by bacteria in human beings are diarrhoea, pneumonia, tetanus, leprosy, plague etc. (ii) Predation : To obtain food by hunting is predation. A predator is an animal or plant that kills and feeds on another organism, its prey. It represents a generalised carnivorous habit. Commonly predators are larger than their prey but this is not always true but predator is in any case always occur as a naturally better equipped hunter than its prey. Most of the predatory organisms are animals but there are some plants (carnivores) also especially fungi which feed upon other animals. (c) Camouflage : It is a strategy adapted by prey species to escape their predators. Organisms are cryptically coloured so, that they can easily mingle in their surroundings and escape their predators. Many species of frogs and insects camouflage in their surroundings and escape their predators. (d) Mutualism : Odum (1971) distinguished interactions into two broad categories: (A) Positive interactions and (B) Negative interactions. (A) Positive Interactions : In this type, those type of interactions are considered in which both interacting species are mutually involved to help each other. Here, one interacting species helps the other either one way or on reciprocal terms and may be in the form of nutrition or shelter or substratum or transport. Here interaction may be obligatory or facultative. The positive interactions include three types of interactions. They are : 1. Commensalism : This type of interaction occurs in between two organisms of two different species in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed. e.g., Lichens. 2. Protocooperation : The type of interaction where both population are benefited but not obligatory i.e., not essential for the survival of either population is called protocooperation. This is also known as non-obligatory mutualism. The relationship between hermit crab and sea anemone is an example of proto-cooperation. The crab pses the gastropod (mollusc) shell as a portable shield and the sea anemone eats the leftover food of the crab, which is protected from its predators by the stinging cells of the sea anemone. 3. Mutualism or Symbiosis : When two different species grow together and are mutually benefited, the plants are known as symbiotic plants and the phenomenon is called symbiosis or mutualism. It is a sort of obligatory association. This type the organisms are dependent upon each other for survival. In this type of association, two types of species are physiologically related. This type of relationship may exist in between two plants or in between one plant and one animal or in between two animals. (B) Negative Interactions : Those interaction of two different species in which both are harmed or one organism is benefited while other is more or less harmed is referred to as negative interaction. In this type of interaction one population eats the other type of population or one organism does not allow other organisms to grow near it by using the food supply of the other or producing toxic substances. The negative interactions be categorised into following types : Competition, Parasitism, Predation and Antibiosis. 1. Competition : When interaction occurs between two species for the use of same resources and when resources are in short supply is referred to as competition. It is a relationship which involves struggle amongst the organisms for food, shelter, water, sunlight and climate. 2. Parasitism : Parasite is an organism which is dependent upon other living organism for their food and other requirements. Parasitism is an interspecific interrelation in which the individual of one species lives at the cost of the individual of another species, its host which it harms and eventually kills. In this case host is always larger than the parasite. The parasite that is seen on the surface of host plant is called ectoparasite or external parasite and if a parasite is found inside the plant body is said to be an endoparasite or internal parasite. Examples: (i) Parasitic bacteria : Parasitic bacteria cause several diseases in plants and animals. For example, the citrus canker disease of lemon is caused by Xanthomonas citri, black rots of vegetables of Cruciferae group is caused by Xanthomonas campestris. The common diseases caused by bacteria in human beings are diarrhoea, pneumonia, tetanus, leprosy, plague etc. (ii) Predation : To obtain food by hunting is predation. A predator is an animal or plant that kills and feeds on another organism, its prey. It represents a generalised carnivorous habit. Commonly predators are larger than their prey but this is not always true but predator is in any case always occur as a naturally better equipped hunter than its prey. Most of the predatory organisms are animals but there are some plants (carnivores) also especially fungi which feed upon other animals. (e) Interspecific competition : It is an interaction between individuals of different species where both species get negatively affected. For example, the competition between flamingoes and resident fishes in South American lakes for common food resources i.e., zooplankton

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